SEMESTER 2A							SEMESTER 2B
NIM	NILAI						NIM	NILAI
B2010001	D						B2010050	D
B2010002	A						B2010051	A
B2010003	C						B2010052	B
B2010005	C						B2010053	B
B2010006	C						B2010054	B
B2010007	C						B2010055	B
B2010008	B						B2010056	C
B2010009	C						B2010057	B
B2010010	C						B2010058	C
B2010011	C						B2010059	B
B2010012	A						B2010060	C
B2010013	B						B2010061	B
B2010014	B						B2010062	A
B2010015	B						B2010063	C
B2010016							B2010064	B
B2010017	B						B2010065	B
B2010018	C						B2010066	C
B2010019	C						B2010067	E
B2010020	B						B2010068	C
B2010021	C						B2010069	C
B2010022	C						B2010070	A
B2010023	B						B2010071	E
B2010024	C						B2010072	B
B2010025	B						B2010073	B
B2010026	A						B2010074	C
B2010027	B						B2010075	B
B2010028	C						B2010076	C
B2010029	B						B2010077	B
B2010030	A						B2010078	C
B2010031	C						B2010079	B
B2010032	B						B2010080	C
B2010033	C						B2010081	B
B2010034	C						B2010082	A
B2010035	C						B2010083	B
B2010036	C						B2010084	B
B2010037	B						B2010085	C
B2010038	D						B2010086	C
B2010039	B						B2010087	C
B2010040	B						B2010088
B2010041	C						B2010089	B
B2010042	C						B2010090	B
B2010043	C						B2010091	A
B2010044	C						B2010092	B
B2010045	B						B2010093	B
B2010046	B						B2010094	C
B2010047	C						B2010095	A
B2010048	B						B2010096	B
B2010049	D						B2010097	B
							B2010098	B

Key Answer

Section 2: Structure

1.   c.

2.   a.

3.   d.

4.   a.

5.   a.

6.   a.

7.   a.

8.   c.

9.   b.

10. c.

11. d.

12. c.

13. c.

14. d.

15. c.

16. b.

17. a.

18. b.

19. b.

20. c.

21. d.

22. a.

23. c.

24. d.

25. a.

READING SECTION

26. b.

27. a.

28. c.

29. c.

30. d.

31. a.

32. a.

33. a.

34. d.

35. a.

36. b.

Communicative Language Teaching

What is CLT?

By Peter McKenzie-Brown
Our approach to language teaching is called CLT, or communicative language teaching. CLT has its roots in the idea that the goal of language learning is to become good at using language for communication. That simple notion is surprisingly profound.

Although languages have been taught around the world for many centuries, this seemingly obvious idea is fairly recent. Beginning in the 1960s, British applied linguists developed the communicative approach as a reaction away from grammar-based approaches such as the aural-oral (audiolingual) approach. CLT didn’t take the teaching world by storm for another 20 years, however.

Communicative Competence. Communicative language teaching enables learners to acquire a language by focusing on the development of communicative competence. To do this, communicative language teachers use materials that focus on the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions. (Examples include asking for things, describing people, expressing likes and dislikes and telling time.)

CL teachers also emphasize the processes of communication – for example, using language appropriately in different types of social situations. They encourage students to use their second language to perform different kinds of tasks, like solving puzzles and getting information. They also stress using language to interact with other people. The following Venn diagram helps explain.

The theory behind CLT suggests that we learn language by using it. However, we use language in four different ways, which we can think of as competencies. The best way to develop communicative competence is for learners to strengthen these areas of competence. In the diagram, the learner’s discourse, grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competencies overlap in areas high in communicative competence.

• Discourse competence refers to the learner’s ability to use the new language in spoken and written discourse, how well a person can combine grammatical forms and meanings to find different ways to speak or write. How well does the student combine the language’s elements to speak or write in English? Teachers often call this ability the student’s fluency.

• Grammatical competence refers to the ability to use the language correctly, how well a person has learned features and rules of the language. This includes vocabulary, pronunciation, and sentence formation. How well does the learner understand the grammar of English? Teachers call this accuracy in language use.

Fluency and accuracy are traditional measures of effective language learning. The other two competencies are less obvious.

• Sociolinguistic competence refers to the learner’s ability to use language correctly in specific social situations – for example, using proper language forms at a job interview. Socio-linguistic competence is based upon such factors as the status of those speaking to each other, the purpose of the interaction, and the expectations of the players. How socially acceptable is the person’s use of English in different settings? This competency is about appropriacy in using language.

• Strategic competence refers to strategies for effective communication when the learner’s vocabulary proves inadequate for the job, and his or her command of useful learning strategies. Strategic competence is how well the person uses both verbal forms and non-verbal communication to compensate for lack of knowledge in the other three competencies. Can the learner find ways to compensate for areas of weakness? If so, the learner has communicative efficacy.

CLT has its critics. For example, an early critic of the approach, Michael Swann, pooh-poohed the approach brilliantly in a pair of academic essays. His critique seems to be aimed at early dogmatic, almost evangelical, writings on CLT. In the early days many true believers seem to have failed to appreciate that non-CLT language teaching can also be effective.

The non-dogmatic approach I advocate seems less open to criticism, since it happily accepts methods and techniques from other approaches, as long as they work. One of Swann’s criticisms, however, still rankles. Said he, “language learners already know, in general, how to negotiate meaning. They have been doing it all their lives. What they do not know is what words are used to do it in a foreign language. They need lexical items, not skills….”

Many CL teachers believe vocabulary acquisition is the most important part of language learning, and that the most important lexical items to learn are verbs. This is a core idea of this course, and can serve to segue this discussion to language content and language behaviour. The Heart of Language. The rest of language learning can be illustrated in a parallel diagram, shown below. This model applies to all languages, regardless of the method or approach the teacher uses, and it is relevant irrespective of your approach to language teaching.

In the heart of this diagram lie the three components of language: phonology, lexis and structure.

Together, they comprise the content of language Around the periphery of the graphic are the four language skills. These are speaking and writing, the productive or active skills; and listening and reading, the receptive or passive skills. Language Content. Let’s begin with language content.

• Phonology refers to new features of the sound system of the language. For example, focusing on the difference between the words “rip” and “lip” is a phonological exercise. A more common way to teach phonology is simply to have students repeat vocabulary using proper stress and pronunciation.

• Structure refers to the rules we use to make correct sentences. For most purposes, we can think of structure as being the same as grammar. When we teach language structure, we almost always introduce these as examples or model sentences, and they are often called “patterns”.

• Lexis is about words. When we say we are introducing a new “lexical item” in a lesson, we usually mean a new bit of vocabulary. It is sometimes difficult to decide whether an item is structural or lexical. For example, when we study phrasal verbs like “chop down” or “stand up” in a class, we can address the topic lexically or structurally.

Every language, including sign language, has these components. Lexical, structural and phonological content lie at the heart of the language. But to make the language come alive requires the behaviours related to listening, speaking, reading and writing. Language Behaviour. In language teaching, the term “language skills” refers to the mode or manner in which language is used. Listening, speaking, reading and writing are generally called the four language skills. We deal with each of these topics in some detail elsewhere.

Speaking and writing are sometimes called the active or productive skills, while reading and listening are called the passive or receptive skills. As we discuss elsewhere in this text, it is possible to consider thinking in the second language as another highly desirable ability. Some call it the fifth skill.

So there you have it. What defines CLT is its focus on the need to develop communicative competence. Like all language teaching systems, however, it can only be judged by its ability to help learners practice using the content of language – phonology, lexis and structure. And that content can only be practiced through the behaviours known as listening and speaking, reading and writing.

What is Contextual Teaching and Learning?

What is the best way to convey the many concepts that are taught in a particular course so that all students can use and retain that information? How can the individual lessons be understood as interconnected pieces that build upon each other? How can a teacher communicate effectively with students who wonder about the reason for, the meaning of, and the relevance of what they study? How can we open the minds of a diverse student population so they can learn concepts and techniques that will open doors of opportunity for them throughout their lives? These are the challenges teachers face every day, the challenges that a curriculum and an instructional approach based on contextual learning can help them face successfully. 

The majority of students in our schools are unable to make connections between what they are learning and how that knowledge will be used. This is because the way they process information and their motivation for learning are not touched by the traditional methods of classroom teaching. The students have a difficult time understanding academic concepts (such as math concepts) as they are commonly taught (that is, using an abstract, lecture method), but they desperately need to understand the concepts as they relate to the workplace and to the larger society in which they will live and work. Traditionally, students have been expected to make these connections on their own, outside the classroom. 

According to contextual learning theory, learning occurs only when students (learners) process new information or knowledge in such a way that it makes sense to them in their own frames of reference (their own inner worlds of memory, experience, and response). This approach to learning and teaching assumes that the mind naturally seeks meaning in context—that is, in relation to the person’s current environment—and that it does so by searching for relationships that make sense and appear useful. 

Building upon this understanding, contextual learning theory focuses on the multiple aspects of any learning environment, whether a classroom, a laboratory, a computer lab, a worksite, or a wheat field. It encourages educators to choose and/or design learning environments that incorporate as many different forms of experience as possible—social, cultural, physical, and psychological—in working toward the desired learning outcomes. 

In such an environment, students discover meaningful relationships between abstract ideas and practical applications in the context of the real world; concepts are internalized through the process of discovering, reinforcing, and relating. For example, a physics class studying thermal conductivity might measure how the quality and amount of building insulation material affect the amount of energy required to keep the building heated or cooled. Or a biology or chemistry class might learn basic scientific concepts by studying the spread of AIDS or the ways in which farmers suffer from and contribute to environmental degradation.

Field, Tenor, and Mode

Field, Tenor, Mode & the Web

How can we characterize language use? One way is to look at the relationship between language forms and the features of the context. The descriptive categories we use are Field, Tenor, and Mode. Based on Halliday's theory of language variation, we can describe web materials. Here is a summary of the descriptive categories to be used:

Field
Field refers to the subject matter or topic. Field answers the question: "What is happening?" "What is the activity?" "What is the text/multimedia about?"
We examine a language/literacy project on the web to find out its content and aims. The description of the content should be clear and detailed enough to give readers a sense that they have explored the site themselves. At this juncture we can begin to suggest how the content affects the vocabulary used. Finally, we address the question, what difference does the web make in the development of the content of the project? That is, what advantage does this environment have over more traditional contexts for learning this subject matter?

Tenor
Tenor refers to the roles of the participants in an interaction. Tenor answers the question: "Who are participating and what is their relative status or power?"
Examining the web site, we describe how learners interact with the material (who is in control?), or how students interact with one another and with teachers or others who are collaborating on the web. We should offer some insight into the relative status among any and all the participants. Does the designer control the action? Does the user have some agency in the activity? In short, how interactive is the site? And, how is the technology shaping or changing participation structures for learning?

Mode
Mode refers to the channel of communication. Mode answers the questions: "What is the language doing?"
Examining the material once more, we look more closely at the language itself. We describe the code (language) used-e.g., English, Spanish, sign language, or mixed codes. We describe the means (sometimes called the channel of communication): spoken, written, graphics/images, and/or a combination of these semiotic systems. We discuss the function of each system and point out which predominates. We ask, is the communication exchange different from other types of human interaction? What features in these forms of communication differ from others?
These three descriptive categories should lead us to a final evaluative comment about the pedagogical effectiveness of the material examined. Are there opportunities for users to be active learners? Does the material lend itself to achieving the stated goals? Does computer support enhance the achievement of these goals?

Character Building

Anyone who works with children can tell you first hand there is a growing rise in disrespect for parents, teachers, and other authority figures. Young children are increasingly becoming crueler with each other. Youth violence is on an upward swing and dishonesty, like lying, cheating, and stealing, is prevalent like never before.

Until recently, calls for school reform have focused on academic achievement. Educators, from preschool on up, now realize that along with the three Rs, children need courses in character development. Daycares, schools, parents and community, all have an important role to play in helping children develop good manners, moral and ethical behavior.

What is Character Education?

Dr. Thomas Lickona, Director of The Center for the Fourth and Fifth Rs, defines character education as "the deliberate effort to develop virtues that are good for the individual and good for society. The objective goodness of virtues" Lickona says, "is based on the fact that they:

    * Affirm our human dignity
    * Promote the well-being and happiness of the individual
    * Serve the common good
    * Define our rights and obligations
    * Meet the classical ethical tests of reversibility (Would you want to be treated this way?) and universality (Would you want all persons to act this way in a similar situation?)."

Character education programs provide positive changes in children’s behavior, specifically in helping each other, being truthful, and not blaming others. And while no one thing is going to have much of an impact on a child's character development, talking about virtues and vices as situations happen at home, at the daycare or at school, plus modeling virtuous behavior ourselves, can help to create a sense of a moral world for children.

More than that, it just makes sense to teach young people right from wrong. After all, isn't child-rearing and teaching all about helping our children to become good people who can live healthy, happy lives of purpose?

"Six Pillars of Character"

Most of the character development programs available to parents and teachers center around the "Six Pillars of Character":

    * Trustworthiness
    * Respect
    * Responsibility
    * Fairness
    * Caring
    * Citizenship

Who Developed the "Six Pillars of Character"?

The language itself came out of a summit conference on character education convened by the Josephson Institute in 1992 in Aspen, Colorado. The diverse group of educators, youth leaders and ethicists who gathered there to investigate ways of working together agreed unanimously that these six values are clearly central to ethical people’s lives, regardless of their differences. Whose values? Some 40 states and almost 1,000 cities, counties, school districts and chambers of commerce (plus the President, the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives) have endorsed CHARACTER COUNTS! and its “Six Pillars” approach to community-wide character education. 1

Teaching Children About the "Six Pillars of Character"

The most important thing that children should take away from character development training is that:

    * Their character counts and their success and happiness will depend on who they are inside
    * That people of character know the difference between right and wrong and that these people use the ""Six Pillars of Character"" as a guide to their thoughts and their actions.

The teacher's role in character education is to introduce a lesson/topic of the "Six Pillars" one at a time. Dr. Borba, author of Character Builders, says there are five steps to building these character traits. The first is to target the desired behavior for 21 days. The second is to define the needs and values of the trait. The third step is to teach what the trait looks like and sounds like. The fourth is to provide structured practice for 21 days. The fifth is to reinforce the trait through immediate feedback and encourage uses for the trait in life.

Building character in children can also be reinforced through the use of visual and activity tools throughout the day. Posters, activity books and other small, creative and fun ideas can make this a project in which kids want to participate!

Once the process of character building has begun, the Josephson Institute, on their Web site Charactercounts.com, suggests teachers and parents:

    * Be Consistent. The moral messages you send must be clear, consistent and repetitive. Thus, everything you say and do, and all that you allow to be said and done in your presence, either reinforces or undermines the credibility of your messages about the importance of good character. Be as firm and consistent as you can be about teaching, advocating, modeling and enforcing these “"Six Pillars of Character".” The intention is to foster the virtues of good behaviour via constant “teachable moments”

    * Be Concrete. Building character and teaching ethics is not an academic undertaking, it must be relevant to the lives and experiences of your children. Talk about character and choices in situations that your children have been in.

    * Be Creative. Effective character development should be creative. It should be active and involve the child in real decision-making that has real consequences. Games and role-playing are also effective. Look for “teaching moments,” using good and bad examples from TV, books, movies, and the news.

We only need to look at programs such as "Kindness Is Contagious: Catch It," which began in a single Kansas City, Mo., school and has since spread to more than 400 public schools in the area, to see the success creative character building programs can achieve. This particular program is sponsored by the Stop Violence Coalition.

Among the activities the program encourages is one in which children are asked to fill up two jars with beans. One jar contains a bean for every time a child receives a put-down, insult, or injury; another jar contains a bean for every time a child receives a "put-up" or an act of kindness. This activity provides children with a visual image of what they are doing to each other. The goal: to increase the put-ups and decrease the put-downs.

A second activity is called "Pass It On." A teacher provides an overview of what kindness is (i.e. the 21 days of learning), and then when the teacher witnesses an act of kindness amongst her students, she or he gives the kind child an object such as a red apple, and tells the child that he or she is now a witness and must pass the apple on to whomever he or she sees is performing an act of kindness.

A copy of the guidebooks describing the program and its activities are available for $20, by writing to: Stop Violence Coalition, 301 East Armour, Suite 440, Kansas City, MO 64111.

Summing It Up

Dr. Kevin Ryan outlines the teaching of character development education best in his article, The Six E's Of Character Education:

    * Example. Example is probably the most obvious way to model character education. Another method for moral modeling is to teach the moral truths embedded in literature and history.

    * Explanation. We need to practice moral education by means of explanation - not simply stuffing students' heads with rules and regulations, but engaging them in great moral conversations about the human race.

    * Exhortation. Used sparingly and with explanations, helps children and employees understand that a a good student or worker is someone who makes class contributions, does homework and assists other students."

    * Ethos. Providing an ethical environment - climate within a classroom promotes a steady and strong influence in the formation of character and the student's sense of what's right and wrong.

    * Experience. Providing students both in-and out-of-school opportunities to serve.

    * Expectation of Excellence. Excellence in school work and behavior will encourage students to develop qualities like perseverance and determination, and those virtues will affect every aspect of the children's lives as they mature.

The end result of character development education: Children who, as adults, will contribute to the community, and whose moral leadership, values and citizenship will make the world a better place.

opening

Assalamu alaikum warohmatullahi wabarokatuh,

Alahamdulilah puji syukur kehadirat ALLAH SWT yang telah melimpahkan segala rahmat dan pertolongannya sehingga blog ini bisa tercipta. Blog ini merupakan wahana bagi saya dan temen-temen yang tertarik dibidang Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris untuk saling menuangkan pemikiran, materi dan berdiskusi seputar learning and teaching english. Oleh karen itu, besar harapan saya agar blog ini bisa bermanfaat bagi diri saya khususnya dan bagi temen-temen yang memiliki ketertarikan dibidang teaching and learning english pada umumnya.
Demikian kurang dan lebihnya mohon maaf yang sebesar-besarnya. Semoga ALLAH SWT selalu meridloi langkah-langkah kita, amien.

Wassalamu alaikum warohmatullahi wabarokatuh.